The New Rhetoric is founded on the idea that since "argumentation aims
at securing the adherence of those to whom it is addressed, it is, in
its entirety, relative to the audience to be influenced," says Chaïm
Perelman and L. Olbrechts-Tyteca, and they rely, in particular, for
their theory of argumentation on the twin concepts of universal and
particular audiences: while every argument is directed to a specific
individual or group, the orator decides what information and what
approaches will achieve the greatest adherence according to an ideal
audience. This ideal, Perelman explains, can be embodied, for example,
"in God, in all reasonable and competent men, in the man deliberating or
in an elite." Like particular audiences, then, the universal audience is
never fixed or absolute but depends on the orator, the content and goals
of the argument, and the particular audience to whom the argument is
addressed. These considerations determine what information constitutes
"facts" and "reasonableness" and thus help to determine the universal
audience that, in turn, shapes the orator's approach.
The adherence of an audience is also determined by the orator's use of
values, a further key concept of the New Rhetoric. Perelman's treatment
of value and his view of epideictic rhetoric sets his approach apart
from that of the ancients and of Aristotle in particular. Aristotle's
division of rhetoric into three genres-forensic, deliberative, and
epideictic-is largely motivated by the judgments required for each:
forensic or legal arguments require verdicts on past action,
deliberative or political rhetoric seeks judgment on future action, and
epideictic or ceremonial rhetoric concerns values associated with praise
or blame and seeks no specific decisions. For Aristotle, the epideictic
genre was of limited importance in the civic realm since it did not
concern facts or policies. Perelman, in contrast, believes not only that
epideictic rhetoric warrants more attention, but that the values
normally limited to that genre are in fact central to all argumentation.
"Epideictic oratory," Perelman argues, "has significant and important
argumentation for strengthening the disposition toward action by
increasing adherence to the values it lauds." These values are central
to the persuasiveness of arguments in all rhetorical genres since the
orator always attempts to "establish a sense of communion centered
around particular values recognized by the audience."
