Indian peoples made some 400 treaties with the United States between the
American Revolution and 1871, when Congress prohibited them. They signed
nine treaties with the Confederacy, as well as countless others over the
centuries with Spain, France, Britain, Mexico, the Republic of Texas,
Canada, and even Russia, not to mention individual colonies and states.
In retrospect, the treaties seem like well-ordered steps on the path of
dispossession and empire. The reality was far more complicated.
In Pen and Ink Witchcraft, eminent Native American historian Colin G.
Calloway narrates the history of diplomacy between North American
Indians and their imperial adversaries, particularly the United States.
Treaties were cultural encounters and human dramas, each with its cast
of characters and conflicting agendas. Many treaties, he notes, involved
not land, but trade, friendship, and the resolution of disputes. Far
from all being one-sided, they were negotiated on the Indians' cultural
and geographical terrain. When the Mohawks welcomed Dutch traders in the
early 1600s, they sealed a treaty of friendship with a wampum belt with
parallel rows of purple beads, representing the parties traveling
side-by-side, as equals, on the same river. But the American republic
increasingly turned treaty-making into a tool of encroachment on Indian
territory.
Calloway traces this process by focusing on the treaties of Fort Stanwix
(1768), New Echota (1835), and Medicine Lodge (1867), in addition to
such events as the Peace of Montreal in 1701 and the treaties of Fort
Laramie (1851 and 1868). His analysis demonstrates that native leaders
were hardly dupes. The records of negotiations, he writes, show that
"Indians frequently matched their colonizing counterparts in diplomatic
savvy and tried, literally, to hold their ground." Each treaty has its
own story, Calloway writes, but together they tell a rich and
complicated tale of moments in American history when civilizations
collided.
